Despite the widespread acknowledgement of scented candles as safe for use and their significant role in improving indoor odour quality, the escalating usage of scented candles has prompted apprehensions regarding potential exposure to their emissions and its subsequent aftermath on indoor atmospheric conditions and the ecological surroundings. An evidence-based study indicates that candles containing fragrance additives emit greater quantities of combustion by-products such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water, and nitrous oxide than candles without fragrance. The emissions of scented candles encompass diverse aromatic and non-aromatic compounds, such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs), semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs), and particulate matter (PM) [4,5]. These compounds have been linked to a spectrum of adverse health effects, including non-specific headaches, respiratory symptoms such as coughing and shortness of breath, migraine headaches, mucosa irritation, eye problems, asthma exacerbations, dermatitis and allergic rhinitis [3,5]. Additionally, phthalates present in scented candles have the potential to permeate the bloodstream through either inhalation or dermal absorption upon their release into the air, thereby exacerbating allergic symptoms, aggravating asthma, and inducing endocrinal hormonal disruptions [6]. Many commonly available scented candles are made from less expensive and low-quality paraffin. Furthermore, they contain formaldehyde and several polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons recognized as cancer-causing agents, such as anthracene, naphthalene, and pyrene, which have been identified in candle emissions [7]. The prolonged utilization of scented candles within inadequately ventilated enclosed spaces is linked to an elevated risk of bladder cancer and colorectal adenoma due to the presence of VOCs, which are associated with the urothelial carcinogenesis process [8]. Moreover, Katsumi et al. documented a case in which aerosolized paraffin released from candlelight exposed an elderly female to exogenous lipoid pneumonia [9].
Beyond their direct implications for human health, scented candles can exert a broader influence on environmental pollution. Most of them use petroleum-sourced paraffin wax, which emits greenhouse pollutants upon incineration, significantly contributing to climate change. The upsurge in the usage of scented candles has fuelled the need for coconut, soy, and palm wax, which in turn exacerbates habitat loss and deforestation endangering many species of animals [10]. Therefore, consumers should be vigilant when selecting scented candles, minimising their use wherever possible, and opting for candles crafted from natural, non-toxic materials like beeswax infused with natural essential oils. These alternatives are generally considered to have smaller environmental footprints and be more sustainable compared to candles relying on synthetic fragrances. They have the right to transparency regarding the products they introduce into their living spaces. Adequate ventilation is crucial to minimise indoor air pollution during candle usage. Scented candles ought to be used judiciously, especially in enclosed spaces, and avoided in the vicinity of vulnerable populations, including children, expectant mothers, the elderly, individuals with existing allergies or heart and lung conditions, as well as pets. Numerous studies have linked phthalates to reproductive health issues, including decreased sperm counts and an increased risk of pregnancy loss, with reported associations to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children [11,12]. Manufacturers of scented candles bear responsibility for the safety of their products and should prioritize the well-being of consumers. Regulatory agencies should consider enhancing standards and mandating comprehensive labelling that discloses all ingredients used in these products.
Supporting information
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Ethical Considerations
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Acknowledgments
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Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.